Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of Newer Antipsychotics on Extrapyramidal Function

  • Review Article
  • Published:
CNS Drugs Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Following acceptance of clozapine as a superior antipsychotic agent with low risk of adverse extrapyramidal syndromes (EPS), such as dystonia, parkinsonism, akathisia or tardive dyskinesia, several novel antipsychotic drugs have been developed with properties modelled on those of clozapine. Though generally considered ‘atypical’ in their relatively low risk of inducing EPS, these agents vary considerably in their pharmacology and impact on neurological functioning.

Although few comparative data are available, the atypical antipsychotics can be tentatively ranked by EPS risk (excluding akathisia and neuroleptic malignant syndrome) in the following order: clozapine < quetiapine < olanzapine = ziprasidone. At higher doses, risperidone is ranked with a higher EPS risk than olanzapine and ziprasidone, but its risk of EPS is lower with lower doses. In general, this ranking is inversely related to antidopaminergic (D2 receptor) potency. The high antiserotonergic (5-HT2A receptor) potency of risperidone, clozapine, ziprasidone and olanzapine, but not quetiapine, as well as the anti-muscarinic activity of olanzapine and clozapine may also limit EPS.

For the treatment of psychotic reactions to dopamine agonist therapy in Parkinson’s disease, clozapine is both effective and relatively well tolerated; quetiapine may be tolerated, olanzapine is not well tolerated, risperidone is poorly tolerated, and amisulpride and ziprasidone have not been well evaluated. Clozapine, perhaps because of its anticholinergic activity, can reduce parkinsonian tremor. It is useful for ongoing psychosis with tardive dyskinesia, especially for dystonic features. No atypical antipsychotic is clearly effective for motor abnormalities in Huntington’s disease or Tourette’s syndrome, and the effect of these drugs on other neurological disorders have been well evaluated in only small numbers of patients.

In summary, with the exception of clozapine, and perhaps quetiapine, atypical antipsychotics have brought only relative avoidance of EPS, strongly encouraging continued searches for novel antipsychotic agents.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Table I

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Baldessarini RJ, Tarazi FI. Drags and the treatment of psychiatric disorders: antipsychotic and antimanic agents. Chapter 20. In: Hartman JG, Limbird LE, Molinoff PB, et al., editors. Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 10th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Press, 2001:485–520

    Google Scholar 

  2. Baldessarini RJ, Frankenburg FR. Clozapine: a novel antipsychotic agent. N Engl J Med 1991; 324: 746–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Jibson MD, Tandon R. New atypical antipsychotic medications. J Psychiatr Res 1998; 32: 215–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Meltzer HY. Multireceptor atypical antipsychotic drags. In: Ellenbroek BA, Cools AR, editors. Atypical antipsychotics. Basel: Birkhauser Verlag, 2000: 191–213

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  5. Deniker P. Experimental neurological syndromes and the new drag therapies in psychiatry. Compr Psychiatry 1960; 1: 92–100

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Denham J, Carrick DJ. Therapeutic value of thioproperazine and the importance of the associated neurological disturbances. J Ment Sci 1961; 107: 326–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Baldessarini RJ, Tarazi FI. Brain dopamine receptors: a primer on their current status, basic and clinical. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1996; 3: 301–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Baldessarini RJ. Dopamine receptors and clinical medicine. In: Neve KA, Neve RL, editors. The dopamine receptors. Totowa (NJ): Humana Press, 1997: 457–98

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  9. Baldessarini RJ. American biological psychiatry and psychopharmacology 1944–1994. Chapter 16. In: Menninger RW, Nemiah JC, editors. American psychiatry after World War II (1944–1994). Washington, DC: APA Press, 2000: 371–412

    Google Scholar 

  10. Idanpaan-Heikkila J, Alhava E, Olkinuroa M, et al. Agranulocytosis during treatment with clozapine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 11: 193–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Alvir JNJ, Lieberman JA, Safferman AZ, et al. Clozapine-induced agranulocytosis: incidence and risk factors in the US. N Engl J Med 1993; 329: 162–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Kane JM, Honigfeld G, Singer J, et al. Clozapine for the treatment resistant schizophrenic: a double-blind comparison with chlorpromazine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 789–96

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Honigfeld G, Arellano F, Sethi J, et al. Reducing clozapine-related morbidity and mortality: five years of experience with the Clozaril national registry. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59Suppl 3: 3–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Geddes J, Freemantle N, Harrison P, et al. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of schizophrenia: symptomatic overview and meta-regression analysis. BMJ 2000; 321: 1371–6

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Barnes TRE, McPhillips MA. Novel antipsychotics, extrapyramidal side effects and tardive dyskinesia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 13Suppl. 3: S49–57

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Van Tol HH, Bunzow JR, Guan HC, et al. Cloning of the gene for a human dopamine D4 receptor with high affinity for the antipsychotic clozapine. Nature 1991; 350: 610–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Kapur S, Seeman P. Does fast dissociation from the dopamine D2 receptor explain the action of atypical antipsychotics? Am J Psychiatry 2001; 158: 360–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Tarazi FI, Yeghiayan SK, Neumeyer JL, et al. Medial prefrontal cortical D2 and striatolimbic D4 dopamine receptors: common targets for typical and atypical antipsychotic drags. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1998; 22: 693–707

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Tarazi FI, Baldessarini RJ. Dopamine D4 receptors: significance for molecular psychiatry at the millennium. Mol Psychiatry 1999; 4: 529–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Tarazi FI, Zhang K, Baldessarini RJ. Long-term effects of olanzapine, risperidone, and quetiapine on dopamine receptor types in regions of rat brain: implications for antipsychotic drag treatment. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001; 297: 711–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Schotte A, Janssen PFM, Gommeren W, et al. Risperidone compared with new and reference antipsychotic drugs: in vitro and in vivo receptor binding. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996; 124: 57–73

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Arnt J, Skarsfeldt T. Do novel antipsychotics have similar pharmacological characteristics? A review of the evidence. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998; 18: 63–101

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Goldstein JM. The new generation of antipsychotic drags: how atypical are they? Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2000; 3(4): 339–49

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Casey DE. Barriers to progress-the impact of tolerability problems. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2001; 16 Suppl.: S15–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gefvert O, Bergström M, Langström B, et al. Time course of central nervous dopamine D2 and 5HT2 receptor blockade and plasma drug concentrations after discontinuation of quetiapine in patients with schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 1998; 135:119–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Ichikawa J, Meltzer HY. Relationship between dopaminergic and serotonergic neuronal activity in the frontal cortex and the action of typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 249Suppl.4: 90–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Nordstrom A-L, Nyberg S, Olsson H, et al. Positron emission tomography finding of a high striatal D2 receptor occupancy in olanzapine-treated patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 283–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Nordstrom A-L, Farde L, Nyberg S, et al. D1, D2, and 5-HT2 receptor occupancy in relation to clozapine serum concentration: PET study of schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1995; 152: 1444–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Kapur S, Zipursky RB, Remington G. Clinical and theoretical implications of 5-HT2 and D2 receptor occupancy of clozapine, risperidone, and olanzapine in schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 286–93

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Kasper S, Tauscher J, Küfferle B, et al. Dopamine- and serotonin-receptors in schizophrenia: results of imaging studies and implications for pharmacotherapy in schizophrenia. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 249 Suppl. 4: 83–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Waddington J, Casey D. Comparative pharmacology of classical and novel (second-generation) antipsychotics. In: Buckley PF, Waddington JL, editors. Schizophrenia and mood disorders: the new drag therapies in clinical practice. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000: 1–13

    Google Scholar 

  32. Clozapine [editorial]. Lancet 1989; II: 1430–2

  33. Emsley RA. Role of newer atypical antipsychotics in the management of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. CNS Drags 2000; 13(6): 409–20

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Tuunainen A, Wahlbeck K, Gilbody SM. Newer atypical antipsychotic medication vs. clozapine for schizophrenia (Cochrane Review). In: Nielsen JP, Crowther CA, Hodnett ED, et al., editors. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Available in The Cochrane Library [database on disk and CD ROM]. Updated quarterly. The Cochrane Collaboration; issue 2. Oxford: Update Software, 2000: CD000966

    Google Scholar 

  35. Gerlach J, Coppelhaus P, Helweg E, et al. Clozapine and haloperidol in a single-blind cross-over trial: therapeutic and biochemical aspects in the treatment of schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1974; 50: 410–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Van Praag HM, Korf J, Dols LCW. Clozapine vs perphenazine. Br J Psychiatry 1976; 129: 547–55

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Fischer-Cornelssen KA, Ferner UJ. An example of European multicenter trials: multispectral analysis of clozapine. Psychol Bull 1976; 12: 34–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Claghorn J, Honigfeld G, Abuzzahab FS, et al. Risks and benefits of clozapine versus chlorpromazine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1987; 7: 377–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Baldessarini RJ, Cohen BM, Teicher MH. Significance of neuroleptic dose and plasma level in the pharmacological treatment of psychoses. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 79–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Cohen BM, Tsuneizumi T, Baldessarini RJ, et al. Differences between antipsychotic drugs in persistence of brain levels and behavioral effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1992; 108: 338–44

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Casey DE. Clozapine: neuroleptic-induced EPS and tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology 1989; 99 Suppl.: S47–53

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Wahlbeck K, Cheine M, Essali A, et al. Evidence of clozapine’s effectiveness in schizophrenia: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 990–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Gerlach J, Peacock L. Motor and mental side effects of clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 9Suppl. B: 107–9

    Google Scholar 

  44. Kane J, Safferman AZ, Pollack S, et al. Clozapine, negative symptoms, and extrapyramidal side effects. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55Suppl. B: 74–7

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Breier A, Buchanan RW, Kirkpatrick D, et al. Effects of clozapine on positive and negative symptoms in outpatients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 20–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Buchanan RW, Breier A, Kirkpatrick D, et al. Positive and negative symptom response to clozapine in schizophrenic patients with and without the deficit syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155:751–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Barnes TRE, Braude WM. Akathisia variants and tardive dyskinesia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985; 42: 874–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Cohen BM, Keck Jr PE, Satlan A, et al. Prevalence and severity of akathisia in patients on clozapine. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 1215–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Chengappa KN, Shelton MD, Baker RW, et al. The prevalence of akathisia in patients receiving stable doses of clozapine. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55: 142–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Miller CH, Fleischhacker WW. Managing antipsychotic-induced acute and chronic akathisia. Drug Saf 2000; 22: 73–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Pearlman CA. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a review of the literature. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1986; 6: 257–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Addonizio G, Susman VL, Roth SD. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: review and analysis of 115 cases. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22: 1004–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Rosenburg MR, Green M. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: review of response to therapy. Arch Intern Med 1989; 149: 1927–31

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Weiler M, Kornhuber J. Does clozapine cause neuroleptic malignant syndrome? J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54: 70–81

    Google Scholar 

  55. Thornberg SA, Ereshefsky L. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with clozapine monotherapy. Pharmacotherapy 1993; 13: 510–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Sachdev P, Kruk J, Kneebone M, et al. Clozapine-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome: review and report of new cases. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1995; 15: 365–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Karaginias JL, Phillips LC, Hogan KP, et al. Clozapine-associated neuroleptic malignant syndrome: two new cases and a review of the literature. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33: 623–30

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Caroff SN, Mann SC, Campbell EC. Atypical antipsychotics and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Psychiatr Ann 2000; 30: 314–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Baldessarini RJ, Cole JO, Davis JM, et al. Tardive dyskinesia: a summary of the findings of an APA Task Force. Am J Psychiatry 1980; 137: 1163–72

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Jeste D, Wyatt RJ. Understanding and treating tardive dyskinesia. New York: Guilford Press, 1982

    Google Scholar 

  61. Tarsy D, Baldessarini RJ. Tardive dyskinesia. Annu Rev Med 1984; 35: 605–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Kane JM, Jeste DV, Barnes TRE, et al. Tardive dyskinesia: an APA Task Force report. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1992

    Google Scholar 

  63. Doepp S, Buddeberg C. Extrapyramidal symptoms following clozapine therapy. Nervenarzt 1975 Oct; 46(10): 589–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. De Leon J, Moral L, Camunas C. Clozapine and jaw dyskinesia: case report. J Clin Psychiatry 1991; 52: 494–5

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Davé M. Clozapine-related tardive dyskinesia. Biol Psychiatry 1994; 35: 886–7

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Peacock L, Solgaard T, Lublin H, et al. Clozapine vs typical antipsychotics. A retro- and prospective study of extrapyramidal side effects. Psychopharmacology 1996; 124:188–96

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Modestin J, Stephan PL, Erni T, et al. Problems of extrapyramidal syndromes in psychiatric inpatients and the relationship of clozapine treatment to tardive dyskinesia. Schizophr Res 2000; 42: 223–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Kane J, Woerner MG, Pollack S, et al. Does clozapine cause tardive dyskinesia? J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54: 327–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Glazer WM, Morgenstern H, Doucette JT. Predicting the long-term risk of tardive dyskinesia in outpatients maintained on neuroleptic medication. J Clin Psychiatry 1993; 54: 133–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Tarsy D. Tardive dyskinesia. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2000; 2: 205–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Soares KVS, McGrath JJ. The treatment of tardive dyskinesia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Res 1999; 39: 1–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Gardos G, Casey DE, Cole JO, et al. Ten-year outcome in tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 836–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Factor S, Friedman JH. The emerging role of clozapine in the treatment of movement disorders. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 43–97

    Google Scholar 

  74. Simpson GM, Varga E. Clozapine — a new antipsychotic agent. Curr Ther Res Clin Exp 1974; 16: 679–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Simpson GM, Lee JH, Shrivastava RK. Clozapine in tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology 1978; 56: 75–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Cole JO, Gardos G, Tarsy D, et al. Drugs trials in persistent dyskinesia. In: Fann WE, Smith RC, Davis JM, editors. Tardive dyskinesia, research and treatment. New York: SP Medical and Scientific Books, 1980: 419–27

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  77. Gerbino L, Shopsin B, Collra M. Clozapine in the treatment of tardive dyskinesias: an interim report. In: Fann WE, Smith RC, Davis JM, editors. Tardive dyskinesia, research and treat-ment. New York: SP Medical and Scientific Books, 1980: 475–89

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  78. Small JG, Millstein V, Marhenke JD, et al. Treatment outcome with clozapine in tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic sensitivity and treatment resistant psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48: 263–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Lieberman JA, Saltz BL, Johns CA, et al. Effects of clozapine on tardive dyskinesia. Br J Psychiatry 1991; 158: 503–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Littrell K, Magill AM. The effect of clozapine on pre-existing tardive dyskinesia. J Psychosoc Nurs Ment Health Serv 1993; 31: 1418–9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  81. Tamminga CA, Thaker GK, Moran M, et al. Clozapine in tardive dyskinesia: observations from human and animal model studies. J Clin Psychiatry 1994; 55Suppl. B: 102–6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Spivak B, Mester R, Abesgaus J, et al. Clozapine treatment for neuroleptic-induced tardive dyskinesia, parkinsonism, and chronic akathisia in schizophrenic patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58: 318–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Carroll BJ, Curtiss CG, Kokmen E. Paradoxical response to dopaminergic agonists in tardive dyskinesia. Am J Psychiatry 1977; 134: 785–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Caine ED, Jolinsky RJ, Kartzinel R, et al. The trial use of clozapine for abnormal involuntary movement disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1979; 36: 317–20

    Google Scholar 

  85. Meltzer HY, Luchins DL. Effect of clozapine in severe tardive dyskinesia: a case report. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1984; 4: 286–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. van Putten T, Wirshing WS, Marder SR. Tardive Meige syndrome responsive to clozapine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990 Oct; 10(5): 381–2

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Blake LM, Marks RC, Nierman P, et al. Clozapine and clonazepam in tardive dystonia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1991; 11: 268–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Friedman JH. Clozapine treatment of psychosis in patients with tardive dystonia: report of three cases. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 321–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Trugman JM, Leadbetter R, Zalis ME, et al. Treatment of severe axial tardive dystonia with clozapine: case report and hypothesis. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 441–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Bonuccelli U, Abbruzzese G, Ceravolo R, et al. Successful treatment with clozapine in four patients with tardive dystonia. Mov Disord 1996; 11 Suppl. 1: 220–1

    Google Scholar 

  91. Borg M, Shatel M. Treatment of axial tardive dystonia with clozapine. Mov Disord 1996; 11Suppl. 1: 212–3

    Google Scholar 

  92. Valevski A, Radvan M, Hermesh H, et al. Successful treatment of severe generalized dystonia with clozapine. Mov Disord 1996; 11 Suppl. 1: 230–1

    Google Scholar 

  93. Jeste DV, Wyatt RJ. Therapeutic strategies against tardive dyskinesia: two decades of experience. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982; 39: 803–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Burke RE, Fahn S, Jankovic J, et al. Tardive dystonia: late-onset and persistent dystonia caused by antipsychotic drugs. Neurology 1982; 32: 1335–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Hallett M. Physiology of basal ganglia disorders: overview. Can J Neurol Sci 1993; 20: 177–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Pakkenberg H, Pakkenberg B. Clozapine in the treatment of tremor. Acta Neurol Scand 1986; 73: 295–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Friedman JH, Lannon MC. Clozapine-responsive tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1990; 5: 225–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Fischer PA, Bass H, Hefner R. Treatment of parkinsonian tremor with clozapine. J Neural Transmission 1990; 2: 233–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Jansen ENH. Clozapine in the treatment of tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand 1994; 89: 262–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Bonnuccelli U, Ceravolo R, Salvetti S, et al. Clozapine in Parkinson’s disease tremor. Neurology 1997; 49: 1587–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Friedman JH, Koller WC, Lannon MC, et al. Benztropine versus clozapine for the treatment of tremor in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1997; 48: 1077–81

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Ceravolo R, Salvetti S, Dell’Agnello G, et al. The pharmacological tools in the study of essential tremor. Mov Disord 1996; 11Suppl. 1: 255–6

    Google Scholar 

  103. Bolden C, Cusack B, Richelson E. Clozapine as a potent and selective muscarinic antagonist at the five cloned human muscarinic acetylcholine receptors expressed in CHO-K1 cells. Eur J Pharmacol 1991; 192: 205–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Schuster P, Gabriel E, Kufferle B, et al. Reversal by physostigmine of clozapine-induced delirium. Clin Toxicol 1977; 10: 437–41

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Baldessarini RJ, Huston-Lyons D, Campbell A, et al. Do anti-adrenergic actions contribute to the atypical properties of clozapine? Br J Psychiatry 1992; 160Suppl. 17: 12–6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  106. Klawans Jr HL, Weiner WJ. Attempted use of haloperidol in the treatment of L-dopa induced dyskinesias. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1974; 37: 427–30

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  107. Gomez-Arevalo GJ, Gershanik OS. Modulatory effect of clozapine on levodopa response in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 349–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  108. Bennett Jr JP, Landow ER, Schuh LA. Suppression of dyskinesias in advanced Parkinson’s disease: increasing daily clozapine doses suppressed dyskinesias and improved parkinsonian symptoms. Neurology 1993; 43: 1551–5

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Bennett Jr JP, Landow ER, Dietrich S, et al. Suppression of dyskinesias in advanced Parkinson’s disease: moderate daily clozapine doses provide long-term dyskinesia reduction. Mov Disord 1994; 9: 409–14

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Durif F, Vidailhet M, Assal F, et al. Low-dose clozapine improves dyskinesias in Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1997; 48: 658–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Linazasoro G, Marti Masso JF, Suarez JA. Nocturnal akathisia in Parkinson’s disease: treatment with clozapine. Mov Disord 1993; 8: 171–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Chacko RC, Hurley RA, Jankovic J. Clozapine use in diffuse Lewy body disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1993; 5: 206–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Parsa MA, Simon M, Dubrow C, et al. Psychiatric manifestations of olivopontocerebellar atrophy treated with clozapine. Int J Psychiatry Med 1993; 23: 149–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Rich SA, Friedman JH, Ott BR. Risperidone versus clozapine in the treatment of psychosis in six patients with Parkinson’s disease and other akinetic-rigid syndromes. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 556–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Sajatovic M, Verbanac P, Ramirez LF, et al. Clozapine treatment of psychiatric symptoms resistant to neuroleptic treatment in patients with Huntington’s chorea. Neurology 1991; 41: 156–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  116. Bonuccelli U, Ceravolo R, Maremmani C, et al. Clozapine in Huntington’s chorea. Neurology 1994; 44: 821–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Colosimo C, Cassetta E, Bentivoglio AR, et al. Clozapine in Huntington’s disease. Neurology 1995; 45: 1023–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. van Vugt JPP, Siesling S, Vergeer M, et al. Clozapine vs placebo in Huntington’s disease. Mov Disord 1996; 11: 54–5

    Google Scholar 

  119. Shapiro A, Shapiro E, Young JG, Feinberg TE. Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome. New York: Raven Press, 1988

    Google Scholar 

  120. Thiel A, Dressler D, Kistel C, et al. Clozapine treatment of spasmodic torticollis. Neurology 1994; 44: 957–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Bashir K, Manyan BV. Clozapine for the control of hemiballismus. Clin Neuropharmacol 1994; 17: 477–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Noe Sebastian E, Irimia Siera P, Pomares Arias EM, et al. Neuropsychiatric disorders in Parkinson’s disease. Rev Neurol 2001; 32:676–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Scholz E, Dichgans J. Treatment of drug-induced exogenous psychosis in parkinsonism with clozapine and fluperlapine. Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci 1985; 235: 60–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Friedman JH, Factor SA. Atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 2000; 15:201–11

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Fernandez HH, Friedman JH. Role of atypical antipsychotics in the treatment of movement disorders. CNS Drugs 1999; 11: 467–83

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Wolters EC, Hurwitz TA, Mak E. Clozapine and the treatment of parkinsonian patients with dopaminomimetic psychosis. Neurology 1990; 40: 832–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. The Parkinson Study Group. Low-dose clozapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. N Engl J Med 1999; 340: 757–63

    Article  Google Scholar 

  128. The French Clozapine Parkinson Study Group. Clozapine in drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Lancet 1999; 353: 2041–2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Livingston MG. Risperidone. Lancet 1994; 343: 457–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Kane JM. Risperidone. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 802–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Klaus A, Bollen J, De Cuyper H, et al. Risperidone versus haloperidol in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic in-patients: a multicenter double-blind comparative study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1992; 85: 295–305

    Article  Google Scholar 

  132. Chouinard G, Jones B, Remington G, et al. Canadian multi-centered placebo controlled study of fixed doses of risperidone and haloperidol in the treatment of chronic schizophrenic patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 13: 25–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Marder SR, Meibach RC. Risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151: 825–35

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Peuskens J. Risperidone in the treatment of patients with chronic schizophrenia: multinational, multi-center, double-blind, parallel-group study versus haloperidol. Br J Psychiatry 1995; 166:712–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  135. Leucht S, Pitschel-Walz G, Abraham D, et al. Efficacy and extrapyramidal side-effects of the new antipsychotics olanzapine, quetiapine, risperidone, and sertindole compared to conventional antipsychotics and placebo: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Schizophr Res 1999; 35: 51–68

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Wirshing DA, Marshall BD, Green ME, et al. Risperidone in treatment-refractory schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1374–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Sharif ZA, Raza A, Ratakonda SS. Comparative efficacy of risperidone and clozapine in the treatment of patients with refractory schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: retrospective analysis. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61: 498–504

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Wahlbeck K, Cheine M, Tuisku K, et al. Risperidone versus clozapine in treatment resistant schizophrenia: randomized pilot study. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2000; 24: 911–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Kopala LC, Kimberley PG, Honer WG. Extrapyramidal signs and clinical symptoms in first-episode schizophrenia: response to low-dose risperidone. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17: 308–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Rosebush PI, Mazurek MF. Neurologic side effects in neurolepticnaïve patients treated with haloperidol or risperidone. Neurology 1999; 52: 782–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Miller CH, Mohr F, Umbricht D, et al. Prevalence of acute extrapyramidal signs and symptoms in patients treated with clozapine, risperidone and conventional antipsychotics. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 69–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Müller-Siecheneder F, Müller MJ, Hillert A, et al. Risperidone versus haloperidol and amitriptyline in the treatment of patients with a combined psychotic and depressed syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18: 111–20

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Herrmann N, Rivard MF, Flynn M, et al. Risperidone for the treatment of behavioral disturbances in dementia: case series. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998; 10: 220–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Lavretsky H, Sultzer D. A structured trial of risperidone for the treatment of agitation in dementia. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 1998; 6: 127–35

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Irizarry MC, Ghaemi SN, Lee-Cherry ER, et al. Risperidone treatment of behavioral disturbances in outpatients with dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 11: 336–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Katz IR, Jeste DV, Mintzer JE, et al. Comparison of risperidone and placebo for psychosis and behavioral disturbances associated with dementia: randomized, double-blind trial. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 107–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Negron AE, Reichman WE. Risperidone in the treatment of patients with Alzheimer’s disease with negative symptoms. Int Psychogeriatr 2000; 21: 527–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  148. Verma S, Orengo CA, Kunik ME, et al. Tolerability and effectiveness of atypical antipsychotics in male geriatric inpatients. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2001; 16: 223–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Daniel DG, Goldberg TE, Weinberger DR, et al. Different side effect profiles of risperidone and clozapine in 20 outpatients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 417–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  150. Breier AF, Malhotra AK, Su TP, et al. Clozapine and risperidone in chronic schizophrenia: effect on symptoms, parkinsonian side effects, and neuroendocrine response. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 294–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Bondolfi G, Dufour H, Patris M, et al. Risperidone vs clozapine in treatment-resistant chronic schizophrenia: randomized, double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 499–505

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Raitasuo V, Vataja R, Elomaa E. Risperidone induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a young patient. Lancet 1994; 344: 1705–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Webster P, Wijeratne C. Risperidone-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Lancet 1994; 344: 1228–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Tarsy D. Risperidone and neuroleptic malignant syndrome. JAMA 1996; 275: 446–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Addington DE, Toews JA, Addington JM. Risperidone and tardive dyskinesia: a case report. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 484–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Woerner MG, Sheitman BB, Lieberman JA, et al. Tardive dyskinesia induced by risperidone? Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 843–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Gwinn KA, Caviness JN. Risperidone-induced tardive dyskinesia and parkinsonism. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 119–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Friedman JH. Risperidone induced tardive dyskinesia (‘fly catcher tongue’) in a neuroleptic naïve patient. Ment Health Res 1998; 81: 271–2

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Campbell M. Risperidone-induced tardive dyskinesia in first-episode psychotic patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19: 276–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  160. Vercueil L, Foucher J. Risperidone-induced tardive dystonia and psychosis. Lancet 1999; 353: 981–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Lemmens P, Brecher M, Van Baelen B. A combined analysis of double-blind studies with risperidone vs placebo and other antipsychotic agents: factors associated with extrapyramidal symptoms. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1999; 99: 160–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Kane J, Woerner M, Weinhold P, et al. Incidence of tardive dyskinesia: five-year data from a prospective study. Psychopharmacol Bull 1984; 20: 423–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Jeste DV, Okamoto A, Napolitano J, et al. Low incidence of persistent tardive dyskinesia in elderly patients with dementia treated with risperidone. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1150–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Smith JM, Baldessarini RJ. Changes in prevalence, severity, and recovery in tardive dyskinesia with age. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1980; 37: 1368–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Woerner MG, Alvirj MJ, Saltz BL, et al. Prospective study of tardive dyskinesia in the elderly: rates and risk factors. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 152–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Jeste DV, Lacro JP, Bailey A, et al. Lower incidence of tardive dyskinesia with risperidone compared with haloperidol in older patients. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999; 47: 716–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Khan BU. Risperidone for severely disturbed behavior and tardive dyskinesia in developmentally disabled adults. J Autism Dev Disord 1997; 27: 479–89

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Carr LA, Perlman SL. Risperidone and olanzapine improved motor symptoms in Huntington’s disease [abstract]. Neurology 2000; 54Suppl. 3: 116–7

    Google Scholar 

  169. Zuddas A, Cianchetti C. Efficacy of risperidone in idiopathic segmental dystonia. Lancet 1996; 347: 127–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Lombroso PJ, Scahill L, King RA, et al. Risperidone treatment of children and adolescents with chronic tic disorders: preliminary report. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1995; 34: 1147–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Bruun RD, Budman CL. Risperidone as a treatment for Tourette syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57: 29–31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Meco G, Alessandri A, Bonifati V, et al. Risperidone for hallucinations in L-dopa-treated Parkinson’s disease patients. Mov Disord 1994; 9Suppl. 1: 61–2

    Google Scholar 

  173. Ford B, Lynch T, Greene P. Risperidone and Parkinson’s disease. Lancet 1994; 344: 681–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Meco G, Alessandri A, Giustini P, et al. Risperidone in levodopa-induced psychosis in advanced Parkinson’s disease: an open-label, long-term study. Mov Disord 1997; 12: 610–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Workman Jr RJ, Orengo CA, Bakey AA, et al. The use of risperidone for psychosis and agitation in demented patients with Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1997; 9: 594–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Leopold NA. Risperidone treatment of drag-related psychosis in patients with parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2000; 15: 301–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Ellis T, Cudkowicz ME, Sexton PM, et al. Clozapine and risperidone treatment of psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2000; 12: 364–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Meco G, Fabrizio E, Alessandri A, et al. Risperidone and levodopa induced dyskinesia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64: 135–42

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Allen RL, Walker Z, D’Ath PJ, et al. Risperidone for psychotic and behavioral symptoms in Lewy body dementia. Lancet 1995; 346(8968): 185

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. McKeith IG, Ballard CG, Harrison RWS. Neuroleptic sensitivity to risperidone in Lewy body dementia. Lancet 1995; 346: 699–700

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Beasley Jr CM, Sanger T, Satterlee W, et al. Olanzapine versus placebo: results of a double-blind, fixed-dose olanzapine trial. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1996; 124(1–2): 159–67

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Beasley Jr CM, Tollefson GD, Tran P, et al. Olanzapine versus placebo and haloperidol: acute phase results of a North American double-blind olanzapine trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 14(2): 111–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Tollefson GD, Beasley Jr CM, Tran PV, et al. Olanzapine vs haloperidol in the treatment of schizophrenia and schizoaffective and schizophreniform disorders: results of an international collaborative trial. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 457–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Tran PV, Hamilton SH, Kuntz AJ, et al. Double-blind comparison of olanzapine versus risperidone in the treatment of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17: 407–18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Bhana N, Foster RH, Olney R, et al. Olanzapine: an updated review of its use in the management of schizophrenia. Drugs 2000; 61: 111–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  186. Gomez JC, Sacristin JA, Hernandez J, et al. The safety of olanzapine compared with other antipsychotic drugs: results of an observational prospective study in patients with schizophrenia (EFESO study). J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61: 335–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Moltz DA, Coeytaux RR. Case report: possible neuroleptic malignant syndrome with olanzapine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18: 485–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Nemets B, Geller V, Grisara N, et al. Olanzapine treatment of clozapine-induced neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Hum Psychopharmacol 2000; 15: 77–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  189. O’Brien J, Barber R. Marked improvement in tardive dyskinesia following treatment with olanzapine in an elderly subject. Br J Psychiatry 1998; 172: 186–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Jaffe ME, Simpson GM. Reduction of tardive dystonia with olanzapine. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 2016–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Soutullo CA, Keck Jr PE, McElroy SL. Olanzapine in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia: report of two cases. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19: 100–1

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Littrell KH, Johnson CG, Littrell S, et al. Marked reduction of tardive dyskinesia with olanzapine. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 279–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Dunayevich E, Strakowski SM. Olanzapine-induced tardive dystonia. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 1662–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Herran A, Vazquez-Barquero JL. Tardive dyskinesia associated with olanzapine. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131(1): 72–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Tollefson GD, Beasley Jr CM, Tamura RN, et al. Blind, controlled, long-term study of the comparative incidence of treatment-emergent tardive dyskinesia with olanzapine or haloperidol. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 1248–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Paleacu D, Anca M, Giladi N. Olanzapine in Huntington’s disease [abstract]. Neurology 2000; 54Suppl. 3: A421–2

    Google Scholar 

  197. Safirstein B, Shulman LM, Weiner WJ. Successful treatment of hemichorea with olanzapine. Mov Disord 1999; 14: 532–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Wolters EC, Jansen ENH, Tuynman-Qua HG, et al. Olanzapine in the treatment of dopaminomimetic psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1996; 47: 1085–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Aarsland D, Larsen JP, Lim NG, et al. Olanzapine for psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease with and without dementia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1999; 11: 392–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Friedman J. Olanzapine in the treatment of dopaminomimetic psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Neurology 1998; 50: 1195–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Friedman JH, Goldstein S, Jacques C. Substituting clozapine for olanzapine in psychiatrically stable Parkinson’s disease patients: results of an open-label pilot study. Clin Neuropharmacol 1998; 21: 285–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. Graham JM, Sussman JD, Ford KS, et al. Olanzapine in the treatment of hallucinosis in idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: a cautionary note. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 65: 774–7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Weiner WJ, Minagar A, Shulman LM. Olanzapine for the treatment of hallucinations/delusions in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1998; 13: 862–3

    Google Scholar 

  204. Molho ES, Factor SA. Worsening of motor features of parkinsonism with olanzapine. Mov Disord 1999; 14: 1014–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Stover NP, Juncos JL. Olanzapine treatment of parkinsonian patients with psychosis [abstract]. Neurology 1999; 52Suppl. 2: 215–6

    Google Scholar 

  206. Goetz CG, Blasucci LM, Leurgans S, et al. Olanzapine and clozapine: comparative effects on motor function in hallucinating PD patients. Neurology 2000; 55: 789–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Manson AJ, Schrag A, Lees AJ. Low-dose olanzapine for levodopa induced dyskinesias. Neurology 2000; 55: 795–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Tohen M, Sanger TM, McElroy SL, et al. Olanzapine vs. placebo in the treatment of acute mania. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 702–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Tohen M, Jacobs TG, Grundy SL, et al. Efficacy of olanzapine in acute bipolar mania: double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57: 841–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Richard IH, Nutt J. Worsening of motor function in Parkinson’s disease: ‘typical’ response to ‘atypical’ antipsychotic medications. Neurology 2000; 55: 748–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Naumann R, Felber W, Heilemann H, et al. Olanzapine-induced agranulocytosis. Lancet 1999; 354: 566–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Cagligiuri MR, Jeste DV, Lacro JP. Antipsychotic-induced movement disorders in the elderly: epidemiology and treatment recommendations. Drugs Aging 2000; 17: 363–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  213. Solomons K, Geiger O. Olanzapine use in the elderly: a retrospective analysis. Can J Psychiatry 2000; 45: 151–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Byerly MJ, Weber MT, Brooks DL, et al. Antipsychotic medications and the elderly: effects on cognition and implications for use. Drugs Aging 2001; 18: 45–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Reynolds GP. Antipsychotic drug use in neurodegenerative disease in the elderly: problems and potential from a pharmacological perspective. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2001; 2(4): 543–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Emsley RA, Raniwalla J, Bailey PJ, et al. A comparison of quetiapine (Seroquel) and haloperidol in schizophrenic patients with a history of and a demonstrated partial response to conventional antipsychotic treatment. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 15: 121–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Kasper S, Mueller-Spahn F. Review of quetiapine and its clinical applications in schizophrenia. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2000; 1(4): 783–801

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Fabre Jr LF, Arvanitis L, Pultz J, et al. Seroquel (ICI 204, 636), a novel, atypical antipsychotic: early indication of safety and efficacy in patients with chronic and subchronic schizophrenia. Clin Ther 1995; 17: 366–78

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  219. Casey DE. Seroquel (quetiapine): preclinical and clinical findings of a new atypical antipsychotic. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 1996; 5: 939–57

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Borison RL, Arvanitis LA, Miller BG, et al. ICI 204-636, an atypical antipsychotic: efficacy and safety in a multicenter, placebo-controlled trial in patients with schizophrenia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16: 158–69

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Small JG, Hirsch SR, Arvanitis LA, et al. Quetiapine in patients with schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997; 54: 549–57

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Arvanitis LA, Miller BG. Multiple fixed doses of ‘Seroquel’ (quetiapine) in patients with acute exacerbation of schizophrenia: a comparison with haloperidol and placebo. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42: 233–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. McManus DQ, Arvanitis LA, Kowalcyk BB, et al. Quetiapine, a novel antipsychotic: experience in elderly patients with psychotic disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 292–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Jonnalagada JR, Norton JW Acute dystonia with quetiapine. Clin Neuropharmacol 2000; 23: 229–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Glazer WM, Morgenstern H, Pultz JA, et al. Incidence of persistent tardive dyskinesia may be lower with quetiapine treatment than previously reported with typical antipsychotics in patients with psychoses [abstract]. Neurology 2000; 54Suppl. 3:51–2

    Google Scholar 

  226. Ghelber D, Belmaker RH. Tardive dyskinesia with quetiapine. Am J Psychiatry 1999; 156: 796–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Parsa MA, Bastani B. Quetiapine (Seroquel) in the treatment of psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998; 10: 216–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Fernandez HH, Friedman JH, Jacques C, et al. Quetiapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 1999; 14: 484–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Fernandez HH, Lannon MC, Friedman JH, et al. Clozapine replacement by quetiapine for the treatment of drug-induced psychosis in Parkinson’s disease. Mov Disord 2000; 15: 579–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Juncos JL, Evatt ML, Jewart RD. Long-term effects of quetiapine fumarate in parkinsonism complicated by psychosis [abstract]. Neurology 1998; 50Suppl.4: 70–1

    Google Scholar 

  231. Juncos JL, Arvanitis L, Sweitzer D, et al. Quetiapine improves psychotic symptoms associated with Parkinson’s disease [abstract]. Neurology 1999; 52Suppl. 2: 262–3

    Google Scholar 

  232. Menza MMA, Palermo B, Mark M. Quetiapine as an alternative to clozapine in the treatment of dopamimetic psychosis in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Ann Clin Psychiatry 1999; 11: 141–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Targum SD, Abbott BA. Efficacy of quetiapine in Parkinson’s patients with psychosis. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20: 54–60

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Juncos JL, Evatt ML, Jewart RD, et al. Long-term quetiapine treatment for psychosis in patients with parkinsonism who failed treatment with other atypical antipsychotics [abstract]. Neurology 2000; 54Suppl. 3: 374–5

    Google Scholar 

  235. Matheson AJ, Lamb HM. Quetiapine: a review of its clinical potential in the management of psychotic symptoms in Parkinson’s disease. CNS Drugs 2000; 14(2): 157–72

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Seeger TF, Seymour PA, Schmidt AW, et al. Ziprasidone (CP-88,059): a new antipsychotic with combined dopamine and serotonin receptor antagonist activity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1995; 275: 101–13

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Gury C, Canciel O, Iaria P. Antipsychotic drugs and cardiovascular safety: current studies of prolonged QT interval and risk of ventricular arrhythmia. Encephale 2000; 26: 62–72

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Daniel DG, Copeland LF: Ziprasidone: comprehensive overview and clinical use of a novel antipsychotic. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2000; 9: 819–28

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Colonna L, Saleem P, Don dey-Nouvel L, et al. Long term safety and efficacy of amisulpride in subchronic or chronic schizophrenia. Int J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 15: 13–22

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Peuskens J. Amisulpride: it’s role in the therapeutic management of the schizophrenia patients. Conclusions. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 2000; 400: 28–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Jain KK. An assessment of iloperidone for the treatment of schizophrenia. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2000; 9: 2935–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Cooper SJ, Butler A, Tweed J, et al. Zotepine in the prevention of recurrence: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study for chronic schizophrenia. Psychopharmacology 2000; 150(3): 237–43

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Stanniland C, Taylor D. Tolerability of atypical antipsychotics. Drug Saf 2000; 22: 195–214

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Kanba S, Suzuki E, Nomura S, et al. Affinity of neuroleptics for D1 receptor of human brain striatum. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1994; 19: 265–9

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Richelson E. Receptor pharmacology of neuroleptics: relation to clinical effects. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60Suppl. 10: 5–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Richelson E, Souder T. Binding of antipsychotic drugs to human brain receptors: focus on newer generation compounds. Life Sci 2000; 68: 29–39

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Tarsy D. Akathisia. In: Joseph A, Young RR, editors. Movement disorders in neurology and neuropsychiatry. 2nd ed. Boston (MA): Blackwell, 1998: 75–83

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Supported, in part, by NIH grant MH-47370, a grant from the Bruce J. Anderson Foundation, by the McLean Hospital Private Donors Neuropharmacology Research Fund and by an investigator-initiated research award from Eli Lilly Corporation (RJ Baldessarini), NARSAD Young Investigator award, Theodore and Vada Stanley Foundation (FI Tarazi).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Neurology, Harvard Medical School and the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, 02215, USA

    Daniel Tarsy

  2. Consolidated Department of Psychiatry & Neuroscience Program, Harvard Medical School, and the Mailman Research Center, McLean Division of Massachusetts General Hospital, Belmont, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

    Ross J. Baldessarini & Frank I. Tarazi

Authors
  1. Daniel Tarsy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ross J. Baldessarini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Frank I. Tarazi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Daniel Tarsy.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Tarsy, D., Baldessarini, R.J. & Tarazi, F.I. Effects of Newer Antipsychotics on Extrapyramidal Function. Mol Diag Ther 16, 23–45 (2002). https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200216010-00003

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00023210-200216010-00003

Keywords

Search

Navigation